Fig. 3

Helminth-derived proteins (HDPs) manipulate the host’s immune system to favour the parasite by engaging receptors, degrading molecules, interfering with signals, and mimicking host cytokines. (1) Certain components of HDPs can redirect immune responses towards anti-inflammatory and Th2 responses by priming Th2/Treg-inducing DCs. (2) HDPs may manipulate the host’s immune system through intracellular molecule degradation, such as breaking down TLR3, disrupting inflammation pathways, suppressing protein synthesis, and causing Th2 polarization. (3) Certain proteins in helminths can suppress the immune system by interfering with signals, such as interfering with T cell receptors and MHCII. (4) Certain HDPs could mimic cytokines and convert naïve T cells into regulatory T cells. Created with BioRender.com